The St. John Wood Working Company, originally named Fox and St. John, opening in 1853 to match the heavy demand of the fast-building city of Stamford. The name was changed to Hoyt and St. John, then Hoyt, Getman & Judd. The company was stationed at the canal dock where they were able to load boats with their productions for transport around the city. As owners changed and the company got bigger, the manufacturing and mercantile segments of the business were separated, the name Hoyt was dropped, and St. John Wood Working Company was the last name to apply, run by Getman & Judd until 1965. The company was so large that it employed 150-200 men and supplied wood all over New England, and largely into New York City.
Frederic Edwin Church was a 19th century painter who participated in, and was a major contributor to, the Hudson River School movement of art. Church was Thomas Cole's star student and he led a second generation of the movement following Cole's death. In his painting we see the iconic Niagara Falls, which were regarded as one of the greatest natural wonders in the United States at the time. We can see a visual representation of the beauty and splendor of the falls, for which Thomas Cole valued them. Not only is the magnificence of this wonder depicted in its size and the power of surging water, but so too is its beauty in the vibrant colors, the refreshing mists, and the unifying structure of the horseshoe shape. Lastly, the brightness of this painting exemplifies the transcendental-like offshoot of the Hudson River School known as luminism. The illuminated wonder suggests that this natural example of splendor is a heavenly oasis for one to be closer to God.
In 1871, the largest nesting of Passenger Pigeons ever recorded in the United States took place in central Wisconsin. An estimated 136 million pigeons gathered over a 850-square-mile area. It was reported that there were so many in the trees-- sometimes 100 nests in one tree-- that entire trees would collapse due to the weight. Pigeon hunters would storm breeding grounds and cut down trees in order to capture the birds. In 1947, a monument celebrating the Passenger Pigeon was erected in Wisconsin's Wyalusing State Park. The monument's plaque reads "This species became extinct through the avarice and thoughtlessness of man." Aldo Leopold spoke at its dedication, saying "We have erected a monument to commemorate the funeral of a species. It symbolizes our sorrow. We grieve because no living man will see again the onrushing phalanx of victorious birds, sweeping a path for spring across the March skies, chasing the defeated winter from all the woods and prairies of Wisconsin. Men still live who, in their youth, remember pigeons. Trees still live who, in their youth, were shaken by a living wind. But a decade hence only the oldest oaks will remember, and at long last only the hills will know."
Yellowstone was the first National Park to be created in the United States. This park marked the first of its kind to persevere nature in such a way where people could enjoy it. Yellowstone was a way to preserve the amazing features of nature from being destroyed without keeping people away. This was an important stage in environmental history because it showed how nature and be saved and enjoyed for more than a commodity.
Developed by Amos Bronson Alcott and Charles Lane, the Fruitlands Transcendental Center was a commune in Harvard, Massachusetts where transcendentalists lived and gathered to share their ideas. Residents of this community engaged in a vegetarian lifestyle, used no artificial lighting at night, bathed in unheated water, and lived their lives with as little man-made technologies as they could. Ralph Waldo Emerson visited this community when it was established and predicted that it would not last very long. This prediction was correct, the center closed down after its first winter due to difficulty producing enough food for the community without the use of farm animals.
In an effort to limit the contamination of the source of the city of Newark's drinking water, the city restricted any upstream disposal of industrial or animal waste. However as the city's industries took off towards the 1880s, the pollution into the Passaic River could not be stopped. Like other cities we have studied, as a result, the city had to find another source of clean drinking water due to unchecked industrial practices.
During the late 1800s and early 1900s, birds became a pinnacle in fashion as wealthy women would have bird feathers and taxidermied birds on their hats. The popularity of the hats led to many bird populations reaching extinction or near extinction. This forced politicians to pass laws for bird conservation, and many environmental groups also pushed for the conservation of these birds. This is still relevant today because the relentless mass hunting of exotic bird species shows society's desire to do something, and worry about the consequences later. This is because of the mindset that natural resources were inexhaustible.
Toward's the end of the 19th century, the slaughterhouses that were stationed throughout San Francisco began to receive backlash over how close they were to large residential areas and the environmental harms they were causing. People did not want to live anywhere near slaughterhouses because of the terrible stench that was caused by the constant slaughtering of animals. People believed that the slaughterhouses that were close to residential areas were a contributing factor in the variety of diseases that were plaguing large, overpopulated cities in the 19th century. For these reasons, government intervention soon followed to answer the calls for change. In the late 1860s, "San Francisco passed a series of laws that first banned slaughter from certain parts of the city, and ultimately established a particular, finite space for killing and keeping of animals that would become known as Butchertown" (Robichaud,4)
In 1869, the Louisiana Legislature passed a law that essentially monopolized New Orleans slaughtering companies under one corporation. As a result, hundreds of small, private butcher shops were driven out of business. The new monopolization was alleged to improve the quality of production and meat of these butcher shops, because they were previously deemed unsanitary. The local butchers were rightfully furious with this new law, because they were prevented from making earnings, and they believed the law went against the privileges and immunity clause of the Constitution. This case was ultimately brought to the Supreme Court claiming it was a violation of the 14th Amendment; the Court, however, ruled against the slaughterhouse. This case proved that the United States was shifting toward an increasing centralized government. The case also indirectly accounted for an improved food regulation process because having the slaughterhouses under one company would allow for a more thorough, safe food inspection.
Dubbed the McQueen Plant, the Golden Gate Recycled Water Plant was the first of its kind in the state of California. It irrigated the park, and created lakes, brooks, and other artificial water features. Prior to the construction of the facility, the city used raw sewage to irrigate the park, and residents began to complain about the smell. A central location for the plant was chosen in order to make it easier to transport the water to the entire parkland. Production of the plant peaked at 750,000 gallons per day in its initial years, which was less than its goal of 1 million per day. The plant remained in commission until 1982 due to high expenses, and the park was left to rely on groundwater. The facility has since been repurposed as the Urban Forestry Center for the Recreation and Park Department, and in 2018 a new facility was scheduled to be built, and its completion is scheduled for this year.
Beginning in the 16th century, Europe had experienced a firewood shortage, causing them to lose warmth, food, and their homes. These struggles were enough to drive the poorer class of England to travel to the Northeast of America to what, at the time, seemed like an endless supply of forest. Although they were new and terrifying, the forests of Connecticut, New York, Massachusetts, and Vermont had eventually been cut down in half. This firewood was a necessity, and the settlers were participating in strenuous amounts of work, especially compared to farming in England. Between 1500 and approximately 1850, they had gotten comfortable with cutting down trees, and started their new lives as farmers. They transformed the dark, untouched, virgin forests to bare farming land, and used it to build homes and raise other resourceful species of animals. The North American Forest Commission estimates that today, there are two thirds the amount of trees as there were in 1600, however, the expansion of the english farmers to the northeast allowed for one of the most significant farming advancements in American history.
From 1860 to 1870, San Francisco's population grew exponentially causing an increased concern over the city's sanitary situation. By the mid 1860s, slaughterhouses in San Francisco began to be pushed from the city center by residents and local government agencies such as the SF Department of Health due to their foul stench and new scientific evidence suggesting that environmental factors might be a source of disease. In 1868, a group of butchers purchased land along mission creek, far from the city center. The creek and ocean tide underneath these slaughterhouses acted as a natural sink that would carry away offal, blood, and other byproducts of the butchering process, into the San Fancisco Bay causing a great deal of pollution.
In 1918 a new deadly flu arose that was eventually labeled a pandemic. This flu caused by an H1N1 virus, was first seen in the spring of 1918 in military personal. As WW1 was occurring, the crowded military camps and constant traveling acted as the perfect environment for this flu to develop and spread. An estimated 600,000 deaths were recorded in the U.S., with 50 million deaths worldwide.
Hundreds of years ago buffaloes roamed all parts of the country in great numbers. As explained in The Ecological Indian, extreme overhunting of hurds led by Euro-Americans and Native Americans occurred, dropping the buffalo population significantly. By 1833, buffaloes no longer roamed the land to the east of the Mississippi River. Mass killings occurred to obtain enough meat and fur to keep up with the demand brought by the capitalistic society of Euro-Americans. Now, buffalo and bison can only be found in western states like Colorado, frequently roaming on protected land in efforts to protect the species.
In the early 1830s, there was evidence of mass production lines in Cincinnati where teams of men would systematical disassemble a hog corpse for its pork meat. By 1837, a team of 20 men could sufficiently slaughter 620 pigs in 8 hours. Cincinnati was dubbed "Porkopolis" until Chicago took the lead in pork production in 1862.
With the rise of meatpacking, Chicago quickly came to the forefront in terms of the major meatpacking industry. Chicago was a perfect place for the meatpacking industry because of its central location and easy access to other major cities through the train systems going through the city. Three major companies took over the industry, Nelson Morris created the Union Stockyards (a major meatpacking plant), Philip Armour, whose system was an inspiration for Ford’s assembly line, and Gustavus Swift, who invented the refrigerated railcar. Each of these inventions or innovations paved the way for Chicago to take over the meatpacking industry. They processed more than 13 million livestock a year in the years leading up to the depression. Not only did this revolutionize the meatpacking industry it also created a lot of jobs. This all relates back to the environmental history aspect because of how harmful the rapid growth of the meatpacking industry was for the way we consume meat.
In 1883, Mrs. D.A. Lincoln's cookbook "Boston Cook Book What to do and what not to do in cooking" is published. On pages 262-263 Mrs. Lincoln describes several ways to cook pigeon, most likely passenger pigeon. Obviously, this cookbook did not really contribute to the extinction of the passenger pigeon, but it is interesting to see exactly how this food item was prepared in everyday homes. This cookbook seems targeted to the common cook, not fine establishments, and its recipes were probably employed well before the publishing year of 1883. These recipes illuminate the place passenger pigeon had on the common man’s table as a vital source of food, not just for sport.
During the 1700's the Chesapeake Bay Region became heavily settled by Europeans. Before their arrival, 95% of the region was covered in forest growth but by 1775 this growth had dropped down to 70%. The main cause of this deforestation was due to the introduction of the plow. There was also ecosystem consequences such as extinction of beavers because they were heavily sought out by traders for their fur.
Head-Smashed-In-Buffalo-Jump is a historic site that was used by indigenous people of the plains region, specifically the Blackfoot. The Blackfoot would drive herds of buffalo from a nearby grazing area 2 miles away over nearby cliffs in one of their most successful forms of hunting. The tribe had "runners" who, dressed as wolves and coyotes, would chase and direct large buffalo herds towards a geographic trap. The cliff(s) are not extraordinarily deep, but the weight and force of the entire herd falling on its own members was enough to guarantee injury to many of the buffalo in the herd. These injured buffalo would collect at the bottom of the cliffs where they would be dressed and consumed by the Blackfoot. The site gets its name from a young Indian brave who wanted to watch his people successfully hunt from a different perspective. The boy put his back to the cliffs and, covered by a small rock ledge, was able to witness scores of buffalo driven from the cliffs above him fall like rain in front of him, from the perspective of someone hiding behind a waterfall looking out through the water. This hunt was unusually successful and bodies of buffalo continued to pile atop of one another until the boy was pinned between rock and beast. The young Indian brave was not discovered until enough of the buffalo were butchered to reveal the brave's body and his crushed head. The site is significant because it serves as a constant reminder of environmental history when buffalo were unbelievably abundant and dominated the western side of our nation, specifically in the Plains and Midwest region. The site reminds us of a time when nature flourished before American Indians and eastern game hunters decimated the buffalo population. The site was designated as a National Historic Site in 1968 as well as a World Heritage Site in 1981. The site and its exhibit/museum attachment have attracted over 2.5 million visitors from around the globe since its "opening" in 1987. The site is additionally significant to environmental history because the site was utilized for hundreds upon hundreds of years before the introduction of horses and firearms, which ultimately were a death sentence to the buffalo in the Midwest. (Not sure what is going on with the date range but the time frame was 5800B.C. - 1850 A.D.)
Beaver Lake started off as a natural landing spot for many animals during their migration periods. Additionally, the land surrounding the lake was used for growing tobacco, potatoes and corn. Cows often grazed the land and other animal life was very obviously present. In the 1920s hunting was permitted on this land, this changed in 1963 when Onondaga County acquired all but 10 acres of the property in attempt to protect and preserve it along with the species within. The lake is currently a popular hiking spot in Central New York with 9 miles of trails, there are also informational programs for kids as well as adults who want to learn the history of the lake.
John Tyson and his family moved to Arkansas during the Great Depression with the goal of finding better economic opportunities. Food rationing brought about by WWII had seriously increased the demand for certain products, one of which was poultry, Tyson saw this opportunity and began raising chicks and as well as selling chickens and feed to local farmers. Over the following decades Tyson would expand his business and it quickly grew into one of the world's largest producers of a variety of different types of meats. Despite the economic success of Tyson Foods Inc. a variety of scandals involving animal welfare and environmental degradation have plagued the business. There have been a handful of lawsuits involving water and air pollution, and Tyson is currently the global food industry's second largest emitter of greenhouse gasses, making it one of the worlds worst greenhouse gas emitters.
Since 2010, when 32 million pounds (according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) of toxic waste was discharged into the Ohio River, pollution has only increased. These chemicals have contaminated drinking water and have been absorbed by the fish being consumed. This mainly began in the 1750s during the industrial revolution which we mentioned in class. As the years progressed; acid mine drains, raw sewage waste, and toxins with nitrate compounds have been dumped and found in the Ohio River. More limits on pollutants are being bent and broken by industries along the river which are owned by big corporations like Shell. Now species of fish and mussels are gradually going extinct due to the poor river quality. Now major efforts are needed to save the river and its inhabitants rather than the poor past attempts and corruption going on within the industries.
The dust bowl can be described as severe dust storms from farmers lacking ecological understanding of the way the grasslands worked. The result was 100,000,000 acres of grassland topsoil turning into dust from excessive deep plowing and over farming. Very reminiscent of the readings from Wednesday as this is a good example why capitalist efficiency and growth is not always an improvement to the land and the peoples wellbeing. This unregulated growth without any semblance of sustainability compares it self really well with production of meats in how waste of massive industry was not yet a component in consideration when expanding growing industries from the boom of new available technologies.
In the 1640s, a group of businesspeople received permission from the city of Boston to build a dam across a cove on the northern end of the peninsula (across from Charlestown). So, it can use the tide to power the flour mill. This then created Mill Pond. Unfortunately, the mills weren't very productive and were sold off by the 18th century. In turn, the new owners decided to close the floodgates resulting in a reduced flow. This allowed garbage and dead animals to pile up in the waterway. After this, the owners began asking the town for the right to fill it in. Finally In 1807 permission was granted which began the process of filling in Mill Pond now known as the Bulfinch Triangle. Once this was completed it added around 50 acres of land to the Boston area by 1826 creating the Boston we know today.